Coastal Zone Management & Ocean Policy

The United States' coastal zone — where approximately 40% of the U.S. population lives within 60 miles of a shoreline — is governed through a federal-state partnership anchored by the Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA, 1972) (16 U.S.C. §§ 1451–1466). CZMA created a voluntary but incentive-driven system: states that develop federally approved coastal management programs gain access to NOAA grants and the critical "federal consistency" doctrine — requiring federal agencies to conduct their activities in a manner consistent with the state's approved CZM program. 34 states and territories have approved CZM programs, covering 94% of U.S. coastlines. NOAA's Office of National Marine Sanctuaries administers 15 national marine sanctuaries and 2 marine national monuments protecting approximately 620,000 square miles of ocean and coastal waters. Offshore energy development — oil, gas, and increasingly offshore wind — is managed separately by the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (BOEM) under the Outer Continental Shelf Lands Act. The policy collision between offshore energy development, fisheries protection, shipping, national defense, and coastal tourism is managed through the National Ocean Policy, established by executive order and periodically revised. Sea level rise and coastal flooding are rapidly escalating the stakes: NOAA projects U.S. coastal flooding will increase 300–900% by 2050 in many locations, making CZM a central climate adaptation policy.

Current Law (2026)

Parameter	Value
Core statutes	Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA, 1972), 16 U.S.C. §§ 1451-1466; National Marine Sanctuaries Act (1972), 16 U.S.C. §§ 1431-1445c; Oceans Act (2000)
Administered by	NOAA Office for Coastal Management; NOAA Office of National Marine Sanctuaries
State CZM programs	34 states and territories with approved coastal management programs
National Marine Sanctuaries	15 sanctuaries and 2 marine national monuments covering ~620,000 square miles
Federal consistency	Federal actions affecting the coastal zone must be consistent with approved state CZM programs
Annual CZM grants	~$75 million to states for coastal management
Coastal Zone Enhancement	Grants for specific improvements: wetlands, hazards, public access, ocean resources, energy, aquaculture

Legal Authority

16 U.S.C. § 1452 — Congressional declaration of policy (it is national policy to preserve, protect, develop, and where possible restore coastal zone resources; encourage states to develop and implement coastal management programs; federal consistency with state programs)
16 U.S.C. § 1456(c) — Federal consistency (federal activities, permits, and funding that affect the coastal zone must be consistent to the maximum extent practicable with approved state CZM programs; states may object to federal actions that are inconsistent)
16 U.S.C. § 1455 — Administrative grants (NOAA provides grants to states with approved coastal management programs for implementation, enhancement, and nonpoint source pollution control)
16 U.S.C. § 1431 — National Marine Sanctuaries (Secretary of Commerce may designate areas of the marine environment as national marine sanctuaries for their conservation, recreational, ecological, historical, scientific, educational, or aesthetic qualities)

How It Works

The CZMA and National Marine Sanctuaries Act govern the management and protection of America's coastlines and ocean waters — addressing the unique challenges of the coastal zone where land, sea, and human development converge. The Clean Water Act provides an additional regulatory layer for water quality in coastal areas.

The Coastal Zone Management Act is a voluntary federal-state partnership — states are not required to establish coastal management programs, but 34 states and territories have developed NOAA-approved programs, drawn by federal grants and the leverage that comes with approval. State programs must address shoreline erosion, coastal hazards, public access, energy facility siting, ocean resources planning, wetlands protection, and coastal development management, each designed within federal guidelines to reflect local conditions. The CZMA's most powerful provision is federal consistency (16 U.S.C. § 1456(c)): federal agency activities affecting the coastal zone must be "consistent to the maximum extent practicable" with approved state CZM programs. Federal permits (offshore drilling, port development, military base construction), federal funding (highway projects, water infrastructure), and federal activities (dredging, navigation improvements) must all clear this consistency bar — and states can object to inconsistent federal actions in a process that can delay or block them. This gives coastal states significant leverage over federal decisions in their coastal zones, one of the few areas in federal law where states can directly constrain federal action.

The National Marine Sanctuaries system protects 15 marine areas plus 2 marine national monuments covering approximately 620,000 square miles of ocean and Great Lakes waters, designated under the National Marine Sanctuaries Act (16 U.S.C. § 1431) for their ecological, historical, scientific, or recreational significance. Each sanctuary has a management plan that permits some uses (fishing, diving, boating with conditions) while prohibiting others (drilling, mining, coral anchoring). Notable sanctuaries include Florida Keys, Channel Islands, Monterey Bay, Stellwagen Bank, and Papahanaumokuakea — one of the world's largest marine protected areas. Increasingly, both the CZMA program and the sanctuaries system are focused on climate adaptation: sea level rise, storm surge intensification, coastal erosion, and saltwater intrusion are accelerating pressures that NOAA addresses through technical assistance, flood mapping, and Coastal Zone Enhancement grants for hazard mitigation and resilience planning. Managed retreat from vulnerable coastal areas has become a contentious but increasingly mainstream policy conversation as sea-level rise projections sharpen.

How It Affects You

If you own coastal property and want to build, expand, or sell: Your state's NOAA-approved CZM program is the governing layer for most development decisions in the coastal zone — and it varies dramatically by state. California runs the process through the California Coastal Commission, which must approve or exempt virtually all development within the coastal zone (typically 1,000 yards of the mean high tide line). Other states use setback requirements (Florida requires 50 feet from the vegetation line for major structures), wetlands protection rules, and building standards that exceed typical county codes. Before buying or building coastal property, verify: (1) what your state's coastal zone boundary is and whether your parcel is inside it; (2) whether any federal permits (Army Corps dredge-and-fill, NOAA sanctuary permit) are needed; (3) how your state's CZM program interacts with FEMA flood insurance requirements. The federal consistency provision means projects requiring federal permits must be certified consistent with your state's CZM program — a state can object and delay or block a federal permit affecting your property. Property in mapped coastal flood zones increasingly faces rising insurance costs and declining insurable value as sea level rise projections change lender and insurer underwriting.

If you fish, dive, kayak, or boat in ocean waters near a national marine sanctuary: The 15 national marine sanctuaries and 2 marine national monuments covering ~620,000 square miles of ocean have site-specific rules that affect what you can do and where. In the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, no-take zones prohibit fishing, anchoring, and bottom contact in specific areas — a GPS chart overlay is essential for compliance. The Greater Farallones Sanctuary off Northern California restricts boating speeds in certain zones to protect seabird and marine mammal colonies. In the Monterey Bay Sanctuary, bottom trawling and mining are prohibited throughout. Sanctuary regulations are enforced by NOAA, the Coast Guard, and state agencies — violations can result in civil penalties up to $140,000 per day per violation. Find your sanctuary's specific regulations at sanctuaries.noaa.gov; before any commercial or recreational activity, confirm what's permitted in your specific area. Marine sanctuaries also provide some of the best diving and snorkeling in the U.S. precisely because of these protections — their ecological health is directly tied to enforcement.

If you're a developer, energy company, or infrastructure project sponsor working near the coast: The CZMA's federal consistency requirement (16 U.S.C. § 1456(c)) is the provision that can stop your project. If your development requires a federal permit (Army Corps § 404 dredge-and-fill, FERC energy facility license, Coast Guard navigation permit), the relevant federal agency must consult with your state's coastal management program to confirm consistency. The state can object if it finds your project inconsistent with its approved CZM policies — and those objections carry real weight. Offshore wind projects along the Atlantic coast have navigated lengthy CZMA consistency reviews with states including Massachusetts, New York, and New Jersey. The practical implication: engage your state coastal management agency early in project planning, before federal permit applications are filed. Identifying consistency issues at the design phase is far less expensive than a mid-review objection. Inconsistency objections can be appealed to the Secretary of Commerce, but the process adds months to years.

If you live in a coastal community and are worried about sea level rise and storm flooding: The U.S. coastal zone is already experiencing measurable impacts — NOAA projects 1–4 feet of sea level rise along most U.S. coastlines by 2100, with higher scenarios possible. The practical near-term impacts: accelerating chronic inundation (sunny-day tidal flooding, which has increased 300–900% in some cities since 2000), more severe storm surge from Category 1–2 hurricanes, coastal erosion rates increasing. The Coastal Zone Enhancement Program provides NOAA grants to states for hazard mitigation and climate adaptation planning — your state coastal office can tell you what planning and technical assistance is available. Managed retreat (moving development and infrastructure away from high-risk coastal areas) is becoming a mainstream policy option, and some communities have accessed FEMA Hazard Mitigation Grant Program buyouts. If you're making long-term investment decisions (30-year mortgage, business expansion) in low-elevation coastal areas, review NOAA's sea level rise viewer at coast.noaa.gov/slr — it shows projected inundation scenarios by year and emissions pathway for your specific location.

State Variations

Each state designs its own CZM program within federal guidelines — approaches vary significantly
Some states use direct regulation (California Coastal Commission); others use networked approaches (coordinating existing agencies)
Coastal zone boundaries vary by state — some include the entire state, others only a narrow strip
State shoreline regulations range from permissive to highly restrictive
Not all coastal states participate — a few have chosen not to develop federally approved CZM programs

Implementing Regulations

15 CFR Part 923 — Coastal Zone Management Program Regulations (64 sections): the primary rule governing how NOAA evaluates and approves state coastal management programs, sets program content requirements, and administers CZMA grants. Key provisions:
- § 923.10–923.11 — Program approvability: to receive NOAA approval, a state's CZM program must define permissible land uses and water uses with direct and significant impact on coastal waters; programs must describe not just what uses are allowed but the legal authority and management techniques that will control them
- § 923.12 — Uses of regional benefit: state programs cannot allow local land-use regulations to unreasonably restrict uses of regional benefit (highways, port facilities, power plants, sewage treatment plants) — the CZMA requires states to prevent local governments from using CZM authority to block projects that serve regional or national interests
- § 923.13 — Energy facility planning: every approved CZM program must contain a planning process for energy facilities likely to be located in or significantly affecting the coastal zone — including power plants, LNG terminals, offshore wind, and oil and gas facilities; this is what triggers offshore wind project consistency reviews in Atlantic coast states
- §§ 923.20–923.25 — Special Management Areas: programs must inventory and designate "areas of particular concern" requiring heightened management due to coastal value or development pressure; must include areas for preservation or restoration; must include shorefront access and protection planning (defining "beach" and protecting public access to beaches and coastal areas); must include shoreline erosion and mitigation planning that assesses how to control or lessen erosion impacts including climate-driven sea level rise
- § 923.110 — Section 306 implementation grant formula: NOAA makes annual matching grants to approved states for coastal program administration; the federal-to-state match ratio is set by formula based on population and coastline length; grants require state matching funds
- §§ 923.121–923.128 — Section 309 Coastal Zone Enhancement grants: grants to states for targeted improvements in nine priority areas — wetlands, coastal hazards, public access, marine debris, cumulative and secondary impacts, special area management plans, ocean and Great Lakes resources, energy and government facility siting, and aquaculture; unlike Section 306 grants, Section 309 grants require no state match; states must demonstrate assessment of need and an approved strategy before receiving enhancement funds
NOAA must periodically review approved state programs under Subpart M (§ 923.131) to confirm continuing compliance. Program changes — boundary expansions, new management tools, new special areas — require NOAA review and formal approval as either routine changes or full amendments. The last major revision to Part 923 was published at 61 FR 33818 (1996), but NOAA regularly updates guidance documents and reviews state program amendments on a rolling basis.
15 CFR Part 930 — Federal consistency with approved coastal management programs (§§ 930.98, 930.153 — federally assisted activities outside coastal zone, interstate coordination of coastal management policies)
15 CFR Part 921 — National Estuarine Research Reserve System (§ 921.4 — relationship to CZMA provisions)
15 CFR Part 922 — National Marine Sanctuary Program (§§ 922.13, 922.30 — selection of nominated areas for sanctuary designation, general permits)
15 CFR Part 950 — National Oceanographic Data Center (§ 950.4 — NODC data and services)

Pending Legislation

HRES 822 — Designate Oct 23, 2025 as National Marine Sanctuary Day. Status: Introduced.
HR 5920 — Let Washington D.C. access Coastal Zone Management Act grants. Status: Introduced.
HR 1874 (Rep. Kiley, R-CA) — Presume coastal-state concurrence for national security, critical infrastructure, and disaster recovery projects. Status: Introduced.

Recent Developments

Sea level rise adaptation has become the dominant issue in coastal zone management, with increasing attention to managed retreat and community relocation
Offshore wind energy development is creating new coastal zone management challenges — balancing clean energy with ocean conservation and fishing interests
NOAA has expanded marine sanctuaries and enhanced protections in several existing sanctuaries
Coastal resilience funding has increased through IIJA and IRA, supporting nature-based solutions (living shorelines, wetland restoration)
Blue carbon initiatives (protecting coastal wetlands and mangroves for carbon sequestration) are emerging as a climate strategy with coastal management implications
Trump reversed Biden's ocean sanctuary expansions via EO 14204 (January 2025), directing review of all national marine monuments and sanctuaries designated or expanded since 2016; NOAA and Interior began reviewing the Northeast Canyons and Seamounts Marine National Monument and Pacific Remote Islands protections for potential rollback.
OBBBA proposes opening offshore areas to energy development: the reconciliation bill includes provisions accelerating offshore oil and gas leasing and reducing review timelines under CZMA; coastal states with CZMA consistency programs face new tension between state coastal plans and federal energy leasing requirements.
IRA coastal resilience funding under threat: IIJA and IRA appropriated over $2.6B for NOAA coastal resilience grants; the Trump administration's freeze of IRA implementation funding in early 2025 delayed living shoreline and wetland restoration projects in at-risk coastal communities.