NASA & the National Space Program

NASA — the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, established by the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 and currently authorized under 51 U.S.C. §§ 20101–40311 — is the U.S. civilian space agency, funded at approximately $25 billion/year (FY 2025), and is at the center of a 21st-century space race pitting government and commercial programs against China's rapidly expanding capabilities. NASA's flagship program is Artemis — the return-to-the-Moon initiative targeting a crewed lunar landing, using the Space Launch System (SLS) rocket and Orion capsule, with Artemis III targeting the first crewed lunar surface mission since Apollo 17 (1972). The International Space Station continues operating through at least 2030, with NASA relying on SpaceX Crew Dragon for astronaut transport since the retirement of the Space Shuttle. NASA's science portfolio — spanning Earth observation, planetary science, astrophysics, and heliophysics — includes the James Webb Space Telescope (launched 2021), which has produced transformative observations of the early universe. The commercial space sector has fundamentally changed NASA's role: under the Commercial Crew and Commercial Cargo programs, NASA contracts with private companies (SpaceX, Boeing, Northrop Grumman) for launch services rather than operating its own vehicles, a model that has significantly reduced per-mission costs. Budget pressures and competition with SpaceX's Starship program have put the long-term future of SLS under review in 2025-2026.

Current Law (2026)

Legal Authority

• 51 U.S.C. § 20102 — Congressional declaration of policy (aeronautical and space activities shall be devoted to peaceful purposes for the benefit of all mankind; expansion of human knowledge; preservation of the U.S. role as a leader in space science and technology)
• 51 U.S.C. § 20111 — NASA establishment and administration (headed by an Administrator appointed by the President; independent civilian agency; authority to conduct research, develop vehicles and equipment, arrange for participation by the scientific community)
• 51 U.S.C. § 20112-20117 — NASA functions (unique scientific and engineering facilities; authority to enter into contracts and cooperative agreements; intellectual property; international cooperation; human space flight)
• 51 U.S.C. § 20141 — Coordination with DoD (cooperation with the military on space activities; avoidance of unnecessary duplication)
• 51 U.S.C. §§ 40101-40311 — Aeronautics research (maintenance of U.S. leadership in aeronautical science and technology; air traffic management; noise reduction; emissions reduction; safety research)
• 51 U.S.C. §§ 40301-40311 — National Space Grant College and Fellowship Program (university-based education and research programs in space science and technology; grants to consortia in every state)

How It Works

NASA is the United States' civilian space agency — responsible for space exploration, aeronautics research, earth science, and the development of space technology. Created in 1958 in response to the Soviet Union's Sputnik launch, NASA has since conducted humanity's first Moon landings, built the Space Shuttle program, led construction of the International Space Station, and sent robotic missions across the solar system.

NASA's mission spans four major directorates: Science (robotic solar system exploration, earth observation, astrophysics — James Webb Space Telescope, Mars rovers, climate science satellites); Human Exploration and Operations (International Space Station, Artemis Moon program); Space Technology (developing technologies for exploration and commercial application); and Aeronautics (aviation safety, efficiency, and environmental performance research). NASA's fundamental research has also driven commercial innovation across the economy — GPS, satellite communications, weather forecasting, medical imaging, and water purification technologies all trace roots to NASA programs.

The Artemis program is NASA's flagship human exploration effort: returning humans to the Moon as a stepping stone to Mars, using the Space Launch System (SLS) rocket, Orion spacecraft, a Lunar Gateway orbital outpost, and the Human Landing System (contracted to SpaceX's Starship and Blue Origin). Artemis is the most ambitious human spaceflight program since Apollo and involves extensive international partnership through the Artemis Accords framework. NASA's 10 major field centers execute this work — Kennedy Space Center (launches), Johnson Space Center (human spaceflight, Mission Control), Jet Propulsion Laboratory (deep space missions), Goddard Space Flight Center (earth and space science), Marshall Space Flight Center (propulsion) — serving as major regional economic anchors employing thousands of civil servants and contractors. The National Space Grant program funds STEM education and research at universities in all 50 states, DC, and Puerto Rico, providing scholarships, fellowships, and workforce development in space science and aeronautics.

How It Affects You

If you're a student, intern, or educator: NASA's education ecosystem is larger than most people realize. The National Space Grant College and Fellowship Program operates university consortia in all 50 states, DC, and Puerto Rico — find your state's consortium and its scholarship/fellowship opportunities at nasa.gov/stem/spacegrant. For direct NASA internships: intern.nasa.gov accepts applications year-round for paid internships at NASA centers; application windows typically open in October (spring session) and January (summer session). NASA's Pathways Program provides a track from student internship to full-time civil service employment. For students at HBCUs, tribal colleges, or Hispanic-Serving Institutions: NASA's Minority University Research and Education Project (MUREP) specifically funds these institutions and their students. For K-12 educators: nasa.gov/education offers free curriculum materials, educator professional development workshops, and classroom grants. NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and other centers regularly offer free virtual and in-person educational programs that connect students to real mission scientists. The James Webb Space Telescope images are public domain — NASA's image and video library (images.nasa.gov) contains hundreds of thousands of royalty-free images for classroom use. A NASA co-op or internship is one of the most valuable résumé entries for anyone pursuing aerospace engineering, planetary science, or astrophysics careers.

If you work in aerospace, defense, or tech as a contractor or startup: NASA spent approximately $20 billion in FY2025 on contracts — primarily with Boeing, Lockheed Martin, Northrop Grumman, SpaceX, and hundreds of smaller contractors. The major upcoming contracting opportunities: Gateway lunar orbital outpost (prime contractors selected), Commercial LEO Destinations (replacing ISS after 2030 — NASA wants private space stations, multiple awards planned), Commercial Cargo CRS-3+ (next-generation ISS and Gateway cargo), and the Artemis surface systems. Technology transfer from NASA is a key resource for startups: the NASA Technology Transfer Program (technology.nasa.gov) licenses NASA-developed patents, often at low or no cost for startups and small businesses. The SBIR/STTR programs fund small business innovation at every NASA center — Phase I awards up to $150K, Phase II up to $1.1M — and are one of the best federal entry points for space technology companies. If you're working on Earth observation, advanced materials, propulsion, life support, or in-space manufacturing, search the NASA SBIR Solicitations for funded topic areas aligned with active NASA mission needs.

If you're a concerned taxpayer evaluating NASA's cost-benefit: NASA's $25 billion annual budget is approximately 0.4% of total federal spending and about 0.1% of GDP. The Artemis program (the flagship Moon return initiative) costs approximately $6 billion per year and has experienced significant delays — the original crewed lunar landing target was 2024, current estimates are 2027 or later for the first crewed lunar surface mission. The SLS rocket costs approximately $2.2 billion per launch (compared to ~$90 million for SpaceX Falcon 9 or the emerging SpaceX Starship at estimated ~$10-100 million per launch once operational) — a cost differential that has drawn significant scrutiny given commercial alternatives. NASA's Inspector General and GAO have both flagged SLS's long-term cost sustainability. The economic return is harder to measure precisely: studies commissioned by NASA and independent researchers estimate $7–14 in economic activity per dollar of NASA spending through technology spinoffs (GPS, satellite weather forecasting, MRI technology, memory foam, scratch-resistant lenses, and hundreds of others trace roots to NASA research), contractor employment (300,000+ contractor jobs), and induced innovation. Whether this economic multiplier justifies the program cost compared to alternatives is a genuine policy debate — but NASA's Earth observation and basic science mission (James Webb Space Telescope, Mars exploration) is broadly supported across political lines for its scientific and national security value.

If you use weather forecasts, GPS, or follow climate science: NASA operates approximately 26 active Earth science missions that provide foundational data for weather forecasting, climate monitoring, agriculture, water resource management, and disaster response. All NASA Earth science data is free and publicly accessible at earthdata.nasa.gov — one of the most valuable open-data resources in the world. Key missions: Landsat (land surface changes, 50+ years of continuous data — the longest uninterrupted Earth observation record); GRACE-FO (groundwater changes by detecting gravity fluctuations — tells us where aquifers are being depleted); ICESat-2 (ice sheet elevation and sea level change); SWOT (ocean and lake surface height with unprecedented resolution). The climate models used by IPCC and policymakers rely substantially on NASA satellite measurements — surface temperature, sea level rise, ice sheet mass, ocean heat content, and greenhouse gas concentrations are all primarily measured by NASA instruments. Several of NASA's Earth science satellites are operating well past their design life with no funded replacements; budget constraints mean some critical measurement gaps could emerge in the late 2020s if replacements are delayed further.

State Variations

NASA is exclusively federal. However, NASA centers provide significant economic impact to their host states and communities, and Space Grant programs operate in every state.

Implementing Regulations

• 14 CFR Part 1200–1299 — NASA general provisions (organization, FOIA, privacy, grants, procurement, safety)

• 14 CFR Parts 400–450 — FAA commercial space transportation (launch/reentry licensing, safety requirements — jointly relevant to NASA commercial partnerships)

• 14 CFR Part 1214 — Space Flight: the regulations governing NASA human spaceflight operations — covering astronaut selection and recruitment, International Space Station crewmember standards of conduct, the rules for what can be flown as mission mementos, and the authority of the NASA Commander to maintain order during a mission. Part 1214 is a distinctive rule because it creates legally binding conduct standards that apply in space and carry federal criminal penalties under 18 U.S.C. § 799.

  Astronaut Selection (Subpart 1214.11):

  • § 1214.1101 — Announcement: NASA announces astronaut candidate opportunities nationwide and accepts applications from civilians at any time; military personnel must apply through their service and be nominated by their military component
  • § 1214.1102 — Evaluation of applications: all applications are screened against basic qualifications; those who meet initial requirements proceed through a multi-stage evaluation including technical review by discipline experts; "highly qualified" applicants advance to interviews at the Johnson Space Center (JSC)
  • § 1214.1104 — Selection board: a board of discipline experts evaluates and ranks highly qualified candidates; the process must affirmatively consider minorities and women in accordance with federal EEO requirements
  • § 1214.1105–1214.1106 — Final ranking and selection: veteran's preference applies in the final ranking; the selection board recommends candidates from the medically qualified finalists to the JSC Director; the JSC Director approves the final selection; the public is notified of new astronaut candidates after selection is confirmed

  International Space Station Code of Conduct (Subpart 1214.4):

  • §§ 1214.400–1214.401 — Scope: applies to all persons NASA provides for ISS flight — U.S. government employees, uniformed military, private U.S. citizens, and foreign nationals; all are subject to the Code of Conduct as a condition of flight
  • § 1214.402 — Crewmember responsibilities: all NASA-provided ISS crewmembers must meet standards of conduct including those in the international Code of Conduct for ISS Crew — a multilateral agreement among all ISS partner nations (NASA, Roscosmos, ESA, JAXA, CSA) that establishes common behavioral standards for the multinational crew
  • § 1214.404 — Violations: the ISS Code of Conduct regulation is issued under 18 U.S.C. § 799, making willful violations or conspiracies to violate a federal crime; this is the legal foundation for federal criminal jurisdiction over conduct in space

  Mission Mementos (Subpart 1214.6):

  • § 1214.602 — Policy: mementos (flags, patches, medallions, insignia) are welcome aboard NASA missions as a courtesy — not an entitlement; all mementos must be approved by NASA's Associate Administrator for Human Exploration and Operations
  • § 1214.603 — Official Flight Kit (OFK): the OFK carries mementos for NASA, domestic and allied foreign organizations, museums, and official archives — these items are typically used as awards, commendations, and museum pieces; the contents list is publicly released after flight
  • § 1214.604 — Personal Preference Kit (PPK): each person actually aboard a mission may carry a small PPK of personal items (typically 20 small items like family photos, flags, pins) for their personal use as mementos; the PPK is strictly size-limited
  • § 1214.610 — Violations: items carried in violation of Part 1214's memento rules become U.S. government property; violators may be permanently prohibited from future NASA flights — a powerful deterrent against unauthorized use of spacecraft cargo space

  Commander's Authority (Subpart 1214.7):

  • § 1214.702 — Absolute authority: during all flight phases, the NASA Commander has absolute authority to take whatever action is necessary to enhance order and discipline, provide for safety and well-being, protect mission hardware, and comply with mission rules; this authority is unusually broad — the word "absolute" is deliberately chosen to make clear that the Commander's in-flight authority is not subject to second-guessing by Mission Control or NASA management once the crew is in flight
  • § 1214.703 — Chain of command: the Commander is a trained NASA astronaut designated for that mission; the Mission Specialist assumes command if the Commander becomes incapacitated; the chain of command is established before launch
  • § 1214.704 — Violations: the Commander's regulations also operate under 18 U.S.C. § 799; willful violations of the Commander's lawful orders are a federal crime; this provision gives U.S. law extraterritorial application over conduct aboard NASA spacecraft

  Part 1214's combination of astronaut selection procedures and in-space conduct authority reflects the unique legal environment NASA operates in: there is no established body of "space law" governing conduct aboard spacecraft the way maritime law governs ships, so NASA fills the gap through its own binding regulations with federal criminal backstop. The ISS Code of Conduct addresses an even more complex situation — a multinational crew aboard a spacecraft where multiple nations have concurrent jurisdiction over their own nationals under the ISS intergovernmental agreement; the Code of Conduct creates a single behavioral framework that applies regardless of nationality. Recent rulemakings: the astronaut selection subpart was last amended in 2003 (68 FR 19948); the ISS Code of Conduct was established in 1999; no major amendments since.

• 14 CFR Part 1215 — Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS): the regulations governing non-U.S. government access to NASA's TDRSS — the constellation of geosynchronous relay satellites that provide continuous communications between NASA and spacecraft in low-Earth orbit. TDRSS enables ground stations to maintain near-continuous contact with low-Earth orbit spacecraft (including the ISS, Earth observation satellites, and scientific missions) by relaying communications through satellites high enough to see both the spacecraft and the ground station simultaneously. Part 1215 establishes the policies for commercial and foreign users who want to use TDRSS infrastructure to support their own missions:

  • § 1215.100 — General: TDRSS was built as a U.S. government asset to improve tracking and data acquisition for government spacecraft; NASA also makes excess capacity available to non-government users on a reimbursable basis; commercial access to TDRSS enables satellite operators whose spacecraft cannot carry full ground-link infrastructure to use NASA's relay network instead — reducing satellite design complexity and launch mass
  • § 1215.101 — Scope: Part 1215 applies to non-U.S. government users only; U.S. government users access TDRSS through interagency agreements with NASA; foreign government cooperative missions are similarly arranged outside Part 1215; the commercial and non-cooperative foreign user market is the focus of this regulation
  • § 1215.102 — Definitions: a "user" is any non-U.S. government entity that enters into an agreement with NASA to use TDRSS services; TDRSS consists of the Tracking and Data Relay Satellites, the White Sands Complex (WSC) in New Mexico, and the Guam Remote Ground Terminal (GRGT) — together these form the relay network between the spacecraft and the ground
  • § 1215.103 — Services: standard TDRSS services include forward link (uplink commands to the user spacecraft through the relay), return link (downlink of spacecraft data through the relay), and tracking (angular measurements and range/range-rate data used for orbit determination); data are delivered to the user at the WSC or GRGT; specialized services (e.g., high-data-rate S-band or Ku-band links for high-resolution imagery) are available on a case-by-case basis
  • § 1215.104 — Apportionment and assignment: a user may not transfer or sub-license TDRSS service to third parties — each user must have a direct contractual agreement with NASA; this prevents commercial brokering of NASA relay capacity without NASA's knowledge or agreement; assignment of TDRSS service is through the Associate Administrator for Space Operations
  • § 1215.105 — Delivery of user data: NASA delivers the user's spacecraft data as digital or analog bit streams at the WSC or GRGT; the user is responsible for providing its own data-handling equipment at those ground sites to receive and process the data; NASA provides the relay service but does not interpret, process, or archive user data
  • § 1215.106 — Limitations and exclusions: NASA may exclude or limit TDRSS service if the use is incompatible with the primary U.S. government purpose of the system, would compromise national security, or would interfere with other users; NASA retains priority for government users — commercial users accept that their service may be preempted by urgent government needs

  TDRSS has been a critical element of NASA's space infrastructure since the 1980s, enabling continuous contact with the Hubble Space Telescope, the ISS, and dozens of Earth-observing satellites. For commercial satellite operators — particularly small satellite operators who lack the ground network infrastructure to receive data from low-Earth orbit directly — TDRSS access provides a relay option that can support near-continuous data downlink without building or leasing a global ground station network. The commercial utilization of TDRSS reflects a broader NASA policy of making space infrastructure available to private and international users on a cost-reimbursable basis when capacity exists.

• 14 CFR Part 1241 — TREAT Astronauts Act Medical Program: the regulations implementing the To Research, Evaluate, Assess, and Treat (TREAT) Astronauts Act (51 U.S.C. § 20149), which authorizes NASA to pay for the medical monitoring, diagnosis, and treatment of former astronauts who develop health conditions potentially attributable to their spaceflight service. The program reflects a growing body of knowledge about spaceflight-associated health risks — including increased cancer risk from cosmic radiation exposure, vision impairment from intracranial pressure changes (spaceflight-associated neuro-ocular syndrome, SANS), cardiovascular deconditioning, and musculoskeletal changes — that may manifest years or decades after the mission.

  • § 1241.20 — Eligibility: an eligible individual is a former NASA astronaut who has flown on at least one NASA space mission; the Administrator makes eligibility determinations; individuals whose spaceflight was conducted under a commercial contract rather than as a NASA employee may also be eligible depending on program conditions; the TREAT Act specifically contemplates that health consequences of spaceflight may not appear until long after the mission, so eligibility extends to former astronauts who have separated from NASA service
  • § 1241.10 — Covered medical care: NASA provides (1) monitoring and diagnosis for potentially spaceflight-attributable conditions, and (2) treatment for conditions NASA determines are attributable to spaceflight; the program covers all medically necessary monitoring and treatment for eligible conditions; experimental or investigational treatments require additional TREAT Astronauts Act Board review before coverage
  • § 1241.25 — Basic program: NASA processes claims through a cost-reimbursement model — eligible individuals submit claims, NASA reviews through the TAAB, and NASA pays medical providers directly; if a condition is later found not attributable to spaceflight, NASA pursues reimbursement from other applicable insurers; the program coordinates with but does not replace Medicare, private insurance, or VA benefits — NASA's coverage is secondary to other available payers except for conditions clearly attributable to NASA spaceflight
  • § 1241.35 — TREAT Astronauts Act Board (TAAB): NASA establishes an internal medical review board to evaluate claims; the TAAB reviews the medical evidence, the astronaut's mission history and exposure record, and current scientific understanding of spaceflight health risks; the TAAB's determination of whether a condition is "attributable to spaceflight" governs whether treatment costs are covered; astronauts may appeal TAAB decisions through NASA's administrative process
  • § 1241.40 — Payment: NASA makes conditional payments to medical providers while the TAAB reviews the claim; if the TAAB ultimately determines the condition is not spaceflight-attributable, NASA pursues recovery from other payers rather than from the astronaut personally; this structure protects astronauts from bearing treatment costs during the review period for conditions that look plausibly spaceflight-related
  • § 1241.45 — Agency collaboration: records generated under the TREAT program are shared with relevant federal research agencies (NIH, VA) to support scientific study of long-term spaceflight health effects; the data inform NASA's ongoing astronaut health monitoring and mission risk assessment; privacy protections govern all data sharing

  The TREAT program reflects NASA's evolving understanding that spaceflight creates health obligations that extend far beyond the mission. The longest-duration ISS missions now approach a year in microgravity; with commercial spaceflight extending to private citizens, the long-term health monitoring infrastructure that Part 1241 creates for government astronauts is becoming a model for how spaceflight health risks will be managed as space access expands. Statutory authority: 51 U.S.C. § 20149 (TREAT Astronauts Act, enacted as part of the NASA Transition Authorization Act of 2017, Pub. L. 115-10).

Pending Legislation

• HR 7273 — NASA Reauthorization Act of 2026. Authorizes $24.4 billion for NASA programs including Artemis, science, aeronautics, and space technology. Status: Introduced.
• S 3672 / HR 5122 — NASA Talent Exchange Program Act. Creates a personnel exchange program between NASA and private-sector aerospace companies. Status: Introduced.
• S 3029 — DOE and NASA Interagency Research Coordination Act. Formalizes research coordination between the Department of Energy and NASA on shared science priorities. Status: Introduced.
• S 4264 — Grants NASA authority to detect and monitor drones near its facilities and launch sites. Status: Introduced.
• HR 7379 — NASA C-UAS Act. Authorizes NASA to intercept unauthorized drones near launch operations to protect public safety. Status: Introduced.

Recent Developments

• The Artemis program achieved its first uncrewed flight (Artemis I, 2022) and is progressing toward crewed lunar missions
• Commercial crew and cargo programs (SpaceX Crew Dragon, Boeing Starliner) have transformed how NASA accesses the International Space Station — see Commercial Space Launch for the regulatory framework
• James Webb Space Telescope has produced groundbreaking astronomical observations since its 2021 launch
• NASA's DART mission successfully demonstrated planetary defense by redirecting an asteroid (2022)
• Growing emphasis on commercial partnerships and the transition from government-owned to commercially provided space services
• In March 2026, the House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology held a full committee markup of the NASA Reauthorization Act of 2026, advancing legislation to set priorities and authorize funding for NASA programs.
• The House Science, Space, and Technology Committee held a full committee markup of the NASA Reauthorization Act of 2026 (H.R. 7273) in February 2026, advancing authorization legislation with multiple amendments adopted by voice vote.